src/Google.Protobuf/JsonFormatter.cs

#region Copyright notice and license
// Protocol Buffers - Google's data interchange format
// Copyright 2015 Google Inc.  All rights reserved.
//
// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style
// license that can be found in the LICENSE file or at
// https://developers.google.com/open-source/licenses/bsd
#endregion

using System;
using System.Collections;
using System.Collections.Concurrent;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
using System.Globalization;
using System.IO;
using System.Linq;
using System.Reflection;
using System.Text;
using Google.Protobuf.Reflection;
using Google.Protobuf.WellKnownTypes;

namespace Google.Protobuf {
  /// <summary>
  /// Reflection-based converter from messages to JSON.
  /// </summary>
  /// <remarks>
  /// <para>
  /// Instances of this class are thread-safe, with no mutable state.
  /// </para>
  /// <para>
  /// This is a simple start to get JSON formatting working. As it's reflection-based,
  /// it's not as quick as baking calls into generated messages - but is a simpler implementation.
  /// (This code is generally not heavily optimized.)
  /// </para>
  /// </remarks>
  public sealed class JsonFormatter {
    internal const string AnyTypeUrlField = "@type";
    internal const string AnyDiagnosticValueField = "@value";
    internal const string AnyWellKnownTypeValueField = "value";
    private const string NameValueSeparator = ": ";
    private const string ValueSeparator = ", ";
    private const string MultilineValueSeparator = ",";
    private const char ObjectOpenBracket = '{';
    private const char ObjectCloseBracket = '}';
    private const char ListBracketOpen = '[';
    private const char ListBracketClose = ']';

    /// <summary>
    /// Returns a formatter using the default settings.
    /// </summary>
    public static JsonFormatter Default { get; } = new JsonFormatter(Settings.Default);

    // A JSON formatter which *only* exists
    private static readonly JsonFormatter diagnosticFormatter = new JsonFormatter(Settings.Default);

    /// <summary>
    /// The JSON representation of the first 160 characters of Unicode.
    /// Empty strings are replaced by the static constructor.
    /// </summary>
    private static readonly string[] CommonRepresentations = {
      // C0 (ASCII and derivatives) control characters
      "\\u0000", "\\u0001", "\\u0002", "\\u0003",  // 0x00
      "\\u0004", "\\u0005", "\\u0006", "\\u0007", "\\b", "\\t", "\\n", "\\u000b", "\\f", "\\r",
      "\\u000e", "\\u000f", "\\u0010", "\\u0011", "\\u0012", "\\u0013",  // 0x10
      "\\u0014", "\\u0015", "\\u0016", "\\u0017", "\\u0018", "\\u0019", "\\u001a", "\\u001b",
      "\\u001c", "\\u001d", "\\u001e", "\\u001f",
      // Escaping of " and \ are required by www.json.org string definition.
      // Escaping of < and > are required for HTML security.
      "", "", "\\\"", "", "", "", "", "",                                            // 0x20
      "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "",                // 0x30
      "", "", "", "", "\\u003c", "", "\\u003e", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "",  // 0x40
      "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "",                // 0x50
      "", "", "", "", "\\\\", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "",            // 0x60
      "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "",                // 0x70
      "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "\\u007f",
      // C1 (ISO 8859 and Unicode) extended control characters
      "\\u0080", "\\u0081", "\\u0082", "\\u0083",  // 0x80
      "\\u0084", "\\u0085", "\\u0086", "\\u0087", "\\u0088", "\\u0089", "\\u008a", "\\u008b",
      "\\u008c", "\\u008d", "\\u008e", "\\u008f", "\\u0090", "\\u0091", "\\u0092",
      "\\u0093",  // 0x90
      "\\u0094", "\\u0095", "\\u0096", "\\u0097", "\\u0098", "\\u0099", "\\u009a", "\\u009b",
      "\\u009c", "\\u009d", "\\u009e", "\\u009f"
    };

    static JsonFormatter() {
      for (int i = 0; i < CommonRepresentations.Length; i++) {
        if (CommonRepresentations[i] == "") {
          CommonRepresentations[i] = ((char)i).ToString();
        }
      }
    }

    private readonly Settings settings;

    private bool DiagnosticOnly => ReferenceEquals(this, diagnosticFormatter);

    /// <summary>
    /// Creates a new formatted with the given settings.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="settings">The settings.</param>
    public JsonFormatter(Settings settings) {
      this.settings = ProtoPreconditions.CheckNotNull(settings, nameof(settings));
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Formats the specified message as JSON.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="message">The message to format.</param>
    /// <remarks>This method delegates to <c>Format(IMessage, int)</c> with <c>indentationLevel =
    /// 0</c>.</remarks> <returns>The formatted message.</returns>
    public string Format(IMessage message) => Format(message, indentationLevel: 0);

    /// <summary>
    /// Formats the specified message as JSON.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="message">The message to format.</param>
    /// <param name="indentationLevel">Indentation level to start at.</param>
    /// <remarks>To keep consistent indentation when embedding a message inside another JSON string,
    /// set <paramref name="indentationLevel"/>. E.g: <code> var response = $@"{{
    ///   ""data"": { Format(message, indentationLevel: 1) }
    /// }}"</code>
    /// </remarks>
    /// <returns>The formatted message.</returns>
    public string Format(IMessage message, int indentationLevel) {
      var writer = new StringWriter();
      Format(message, writer, indentationLevel);
      return writer.ToString();
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Formats the specified message as JSON.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="message">The message to format.</param>
    /// <param name="writer">The TextWriter to write the formatted message to.</param>
    /// <remarks>This method delegates to <c>Format(IMessage, TextWriter, int)</c> with
    /// <c>indentationLevel = 0</c>.</remarks> <returns>The formatted message.</returns>
    public void Format(IMessage message, TextWriter writer) => Format(message, writer,
                                                                      indentationLevel: 0);

    /// <summary>
    /// Formats the specified message as JSON. When <see cref="Settings.Indentation"/> is not null,
    /// start indenting at the specified <paramref name="indentationLevel"/>.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="message">The message to format.</param>
    /// <param name="writer">The TextWriter to write the formatted message to.</param>
    /// <param name="indentationLevel">Indentation level to start at.</param>
    /// <remarks>To keep consistent indentation when embedding a message inside another JSON string,
    /// set <paramref name="indentationLevel"/>.</remarks>
    public void Format(IMessage message, TextWriter writer, int indentationLevel) {
      ProtoPreconditions.CheckNotNull(message, nameof(message));
      ProtoPreconditions.CheckNotNull(writer, nameof(writer));

      if (message.Descriptor.IsWellKnownType) {
        WriteWellKnownTypeValue(writer, message.Descriptor, message, indentationLevel);
      } else {
        WriteMessage(writer, message, indentationLevel);
      }
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Converts a message to JSON for diagnostic purposes with no extra context.
    /// </summary>
    /// <remarks>
    /// <para>
    /// This differs from calling <see cref="Format(IMessage)"/> on the default JSON
    /// formatter in its handling of <see cref="Any"/>. As no type registry is available
    /// in <see cref="object.ToString"/> calls, the normal way of resolving the type of
    /// an <c>Any</c> message cannot be applied. Instead, a JSON property named <c>@value</c>
    /// is included with the base64 data from the <see cref="Any.Value"/> property of the message.
    /// </para>
    /// <para>The value returned by this method is only designed to be used for diagnostic
    /// purposes. It may not be parsable by <see cref="JsonParser"/>, and may not be parsable
    /// by other Protocol Buffer implementations.</para>
    /// </remarks>
    /// <param name="message">The message to format for diagnostic purposes.</param>
    /// <returns>The diagnostic-only JSON representation of the message</returns>
    public static string ToDiagnosticString(IMessage message) {
      ProtoPreconditions.CheckNotNull(message, nameof(message));
      return diagnosticFormatter.Format(message);
    }

    private void WriteMessage(TextWriter writer, IMessage message, int indentationLevel) {
      if (message == null) {
        WriteNull(writer);
        return;
      }
      if (DiagnosticOnly) {
        if (message is ICustomDiagnosticMessage customDiagnosticMessage) {
          writer.Write(customDiagnosticMessage.ToDiagnosticString());
          return;
        }
      }

      WriteBracketOpen(writer, ObjectOpenBracket);
      bool writtenFields = WriteMessageFields(writer, message, false, indentationLevel + 1);
      WriteBracketClose(writer, ObjectCloseBracket, writtenFields, indentationLevel);
    }

    private bool WriteMessageFields(TextWriter writer, IMessage message,
                                    bool assumeFirstFieldWritten, int indentationLevel) {
      var fields = message.Descriptor.Fields;
      bool first = !assumeFirstFieldWritten;
      // First non-oneof fields
      foreach (var field in fields.InFieldNumberOrder()) {
        var accessor = field.Accessor;
        var value = accessor.GetValue(message);
        if (!ShouldFormatFieldValue(message, field, value)) {
          continue;
        }

        MaybeWriteValueSeparator(writer, first);
        MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(writer, indentationLevel);

        if (settings.PreserveProtoFieldNames) {
          WriteString(writer, accessor.Descriptor.Name);
        } else {
          WriteString(writer, accessor.Descriptor.JsonName);
        }
        writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
        WriteValue(writer, value, indentationLevel);

        first = false;
      }
      return !first;
    }

    private void MaybeWriteValueSeparator(TextWriter writer, bool first) {
      if (first) {
        return;
      }

      writer.Write(settings.Indentation == null ? ValueSeparator : MultilineValueSeparator);
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Determines whether or not a field value should be serialized according to the field,
    /// its value in the message, and the settings of this formatter.
    /// </summary>
    private bool ShouldFormatFieldValue(IMessage message, FieldDescriptor field, object value) =>
        field.HasPresence
            // Fields that support presence *just* use that
            ? field.Accessor.HasValue(message)
            // Otherwise, format if either we've been asked to format default values, or if it's
            // not a default value anyway.
            : settings.FormatDefaultValues || !IsDefaultValue(field, value);

    // Converted from java/core/src/main/java/com/google/protobuf/Descriptors.java
    internal static string ToJsonName(string name) {
      StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(name.Length);
      bool isNextUpperCase = false;
      foreach (char ch in name) {
        if (ch == '_') {
          isNextUpperCase = true;
        } else if (isNextUpperCase) {
          result.Append(char.ToUpperInvariant(ch));
          isNextUpperCase = false;
        } else {
          result.Append(ch);
        }
      }
      return result.ToString();
    }

    internal static string FromJsonName(string name) {
      StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(name.Length);
      foreach (char ch in name) {
        if (char.IsUpper(ch)) {
          result.Append('_');
          result.Append(char.ToLowerInvariant(ch));
        } else {
          result.Append(ch);
        }
      }
      return result.ToString();
    }

    private static void WriteNull(TextWriter writer) {
      writer.Write("null");
    }

    private static bool IsDefaultValue(FieldDescriptor descriptor, object value) {
      if (descriptor.IsMap) {
        IDictionary dictionary = (IDictionary)value;
        return dictionary.Count == 0;
      }
      if (descriptor.IsRepeated) {
        IList list = (IList)value;
        return list.Count == 0;
      }
      return descriptor.FieldType switch {
        FieldType.Bool => (bool)value == false,
        FieldType.Bytes => (ByteString)value == ByteString.Empty,
        FieldType.String => (string)value == "",
        FieldType.Double => (double)value == 0.0,
        FieldType.SInt32 or FieldType.Int32 or FieldType.SFixed32 or FieldType.Enum =>
            (int)value == 0,
        FieldType.Fixed32 or FieldType.UInt32 => (uint)value == 0,
        FieldType.Fixed64 or FieldType.UInt64 => (ulong)value == 0,
        FieldType.SFixed64 or FieldType.Int64 or FieldType.SInt64 => (long)value == 0,
        FieldType.Float => (float)value == 0f,
        FieldType.Message or FieldType.Group => value == null,
        _ => throw new ArgumentException("Invalid field type"),
      };
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Writes a single value to the given writer as JSON. Only types understood by
    /// Protocol Buffers can be written in this way. This method is only exposed for
    /// advanced use cases; most users should be using <see cref="Format(IMessage)"/>
    /// or <see cref="Format(IMessage, TextWriter)"/>.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="writer">The writer to write the value to. Must not be null.</param>
    /// <param name="value">The value to write. May be null.</param>
    /// <remarks>Delegates to <c>WriteValue(TextWriter, object, int)</c> with <c>indentationLevel =
    /// 0</c>.</remarks>
    public void WriteValue(TextWriter writer, object value) => WriteValue(writer, value, 0);

    /// <summary>
    /// Writes a single value to the given writer as JSON. Only types understood by
    /// Protocol Buffers can be written in this way. This method is only exposed for
    /// advanced use cases; most users should be using <see cref="Format(IMessage)"/>
    /// or <see cref="Format(IMessage, TextWriter)"/>.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="writer">The writer to write the value to. Must not be null.</param>
    /// <param name="value">The value to write. May be null.</param>
    /// <param name="indentationLevel">The current indentationLevel. Not used when <see
    /// cref="Settings.Indentation"/> is null.</param>
    public void WriteValue(TextWriter writer, object value, int indentationLevel) {
      if (value == null || value is NullValue) {
        WriteNull(writer);
      } else if (value is bool b) {
        writer.Write(b ? "true" : "false");
      } else if (value is ByteString byteString) {
        // Nothing in Base64 needs escaping
        writer.Write('"');
        writer.Write(byteString.ToBase64());
        writer.Write('"');
      } else if (value is string str) {
        WriteString(writer, str);
      } else if (value is IDictionary dictionary) {
        WriteDictionary(writer, dictionary, indentationLevel);
      } else if (value is IList list) {
        WriteList(writer, list, indentationLevel);
      } else if (value is int || value is uint) {
        IFormattable formattable = (IFormattable)value;
        writer.Write(formattable.ToString("d", CultureInfo.InvariantCulture));
      } else if (value is long || value is ulong) {
        writer.Write('"');
        IFormattable formattable = (IFormattable)value;
        writer.Write(formattable.ToString("d", CultureInfo.InvariantCulture));
        writer.Write('"');
      } else if (value is System.Enum) {
        if (settings.FormatEnumsAsIntegers) {
          WriteValue(writer, (int)value);
        } else {
          string name = OriginalEnumValueHelper.GetOriginalName(value);
          if (name != null) {
            WriteString(writer, name);
          } else {
            WriteValue(writer, (int)value);
          }
        }
      } else if (value is float || value is double) {
        string text = ((IFormattable)value).ToString("r", CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
        if (text == "NaN" || text == "Infinity" || text == "-Infinity") {
          writer.Write('"');
          writer.Write(text);
          writer.Write('"');
        } else {
          writer.Write(text);
        }
      } else if (value is IMessage message) {
        Format(message, writer, indentationLevel);
      } else {
        throw new ArgumentException("Unable to format value of type " + value.GetType());
      }
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Central interception point for well-known type formatting. Any well-known types which
    /// don't need special handling can fall back to WriteMessage. We avoid assuming that the
    /// values are using the embedded well-known types, in order to allow for dynamic messages
    /// in the future.
    /// </summary>
    private void WriteWellKnownTypeValue(TextWriter writer, MessageDescriptor descriptor,
                                         object value, int indentationLevel) {
      // Currently, we can never actually get here, because null values are always handled by the
      // caller. But if we *could*, this would do the right thing.
      if (value == null) {
        WriteNull(writer);
        return;
      }
      // For wrapper types, the value will either be the (possibly boxed) "native" value,
      // or the message itself if we're formatting it at the top level (e.g. just calling ToString
      // on the object itself). If it's the message form, we can extract the value first, which
      // *will* be the (possibly boxed) native value, and then proceed, writing it as if we were
      // definitely in a field. (We never need to wrap it in an extra string... WriteValue will do
      // the right thing.)
      if (descriptor.IsWrapperType) {
        if (value is IMessage message) {
          value = message.Descriptor.Fields[WrappersReflection.WrapperValueFieldNumber]
                      .Accessor.GetValue(message);
        }
        WriteValue(writer, value);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == Timestamp.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteTimestamp(writer, (IMessage)value);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == Duration.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteDuration(writer, (IMessage)value);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == FieldMask.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteFieldMask(writer, (IMessage)value);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == Struct.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteStruct(writer, (IMessage)value, indentationLevel);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == ListValue.Descriptor.FullName) {
        var fieldAccessor = descriptor.Fields[ListValue.ValuesFieldNumber].Accessor;
        WriteList(writer, (IList)fieldAccessor.GetValue((IMessage)value), indentationLevel);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == Value.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteStructFieldValue(writer, (IMessage)value, indentationLevel);
        return;
      }
      if (descriptor.FullName == Any.Descriptor.FullName) {
        WriteAny(writer, (IMessage)value, indentationLevel);
        return;
      }
      WriteMessage(writer, (IMessage)value, indentationLevel);
    }

    private void WriteTimestamp(TextWriter writer, IMessage value) {
      // TODO: In the common case where this *is* using the built-in Timestamp type, we could
      // avoid all the reflection at this point, by casting to Timestamp. In the interests of
      // avoiding subtle bugs, don't do that until we've implemented DynamicMessage so that we can
      // prove it still works in that case.
      int nanos = (int)value.Descriptor.Fields[Timestamp.NanosFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      long seconds =
          (long)value.Descriptor.Fields[Timestamp.SecondsFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      writer.Write(Timestamp.ToJson(seconds, nanos, DiagnosticOnly));
    }

    private void WriteDuration(TextWriter writer, IMessage value) {
      // TODO: Same as for WriteTimestamp
      int nanos = (int)value.Descriptor.Fields[Duration.NanosFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      long seconds =
          (long)value.Descriptor.Fields[Duration.SecondsFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      writer.Write(Duration.ToJson(seconds, nanos, DiagnosticOnly));
    }

    private void WriteFieldMask(TextWriter writer, IMessage value) {
      var paths =
          (IList<string>)value.Descriptor.Fields[FieldMask.PathsFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(
              value);
      writer.Write(FieldMask.ToJson(paths, DiagnosticOnly));
    }

    private void WriteAny(TextWriter writer, IMessage value, int indentationLevel) {
      if (DiagnosticOnly) {
        WriteDiagnosticOnlyAny(writer, value);
        return;
      }

      string typeUrl =
          (string)value.Descriptor.Fields[Any.TypeUrlFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      ByteString data =
          (ByteString)value.Descriptor.Fields[Any.ValueFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      string typeName = Any.GetTypeName(typeUrl);
      MessageDescriptor descriptor = settings.TypeRegistry.Find(typeName);
      if (descriptor == null) {
        throw new InvalidOperationException(
            $"Type registry has no descriptor for type name '{typeName}'");
      }
      IMessage message = descriptor.Parser.ParseFrom(data);
      WriteBracketOpen(writer, ObjectOpenBracket);
      MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(writer, indentationLevel + 1);
      WriteString(writer, AnyTypeUrlField);
      writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
      WriteString(writer, typeUrl);

      if (descriptor.IsWellKnownType) {
        writer.Write(ValueSeparator);
        WriteString(writer, AnyWellKnownTypeValueField);
        writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
        WriteWellKnownTypeValue(writer, descriptor, message, indentationLevel + 1);
      } else {
        WriteMessageFields(writer, message, true, indentationLevel + 1);
      }
      WriteBracketClose(writer, ObjectCloseBracket, true, indentationLevel);
    }

    private void WriteDiagnosticOnlyAny(TextWriter writer, IMessage value) {
      string typeUrl =
          (string)value.Descriptor.Fields[Any.TypeUrlFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      ByteString data =
          (ByteString)value.Descriptor.Fields[Any.ValueFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(value);
      writer.Write("{ ");
      WriteString(writer, AnyTypeUrlField);
      writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
      WriteString(writer, typeUrl);
      writer.Write(ValueSeparator);
      WriteString(writer, AnyDiagnosticValueField);
      writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
      writer.Write('"');
      writer.Write(data.ToBase64());
      writer.Write('"');
      writer.Write(" }");
    }

    private void WriteStruct(TextWriter writer, IMessage message, int indentationLevel) {
      WriteBracketOpen(writer, ObjectOpenBracket);
      IDictionary fields =
          (IDictionary)message.Descriptor.Fields[Struct.FieldsFieldNumber].Accessor.GetValue(
              message);
      bool first = true;
      foreach (DictionaryEntry entry in fields) {
        string key = (string)entry.Key;
        IMessage value = (IMessage)entry.Value;
        if (string.IsNullOrEmpty(key) || value == null) {
          throw new InvalidOperationException(
              "Struct fields cannot have an empty key or a null value.");
        }

        MaybeWriteValueSeparator(writer, first);
        MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(writer, indentationLevel + 1);
        WriteString(writer, key);
        writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
        WriteStructFieldValue(writer, value, indentationLevel + 1);
        first = false;
      }
      WriteBracketClose(writer, ObjectCloseBracket, !first, indentationLevel);
    }

    private void WriteStructFieldValue(TextWriter writer, IMessage message, int indentationLevel) {
      var specifiedField = message.Descriptor.Oneofs[0].Accessor.GetCaseFieldDescriptor(message);
      if (specifiedField == null) {
        throw new InvalidOperationException("Value message must contain a value for the oneof.");
      }

      object value = specifiedField.Accessor.GetValue(message);

      switch (specifiedField.FieldNumber) {
        case Value.BoolValueFieldNumber:
        case Value.StringValueFieldNumber:
        case Value.NumberValueFieldNumber:
          WriteValue(writer, value);
          return;
        case Value.StructValueFieldNumber:
        case Value.ListValueFieldNumber:
          // Structs and ListValues are nested messages, and already well-known types.
          var nestedMessage = (IMessage)specifiedField.Accessor.GetValue(message);
          WriteWellKnownTypeValue(writer, nestedMessage.Descriptor, nestedMessage,
                                  indentationLevel);
          return;
        case Value.NullValueFieldNumber:
          WriteNull(writer);
          return;
        default:
          throw new InvalidOperationException("Unexpected case in struct field: " +
                                              specifiedField.FieldNumber);
      }
    }

    internal void WriteList(TextWriter writer, IList list, int indentationLevel = 0) {
      WriteBracketOpen(writer, ListBracketOpen);

      bool first = true;
      foreach (var value in list) {
        MaybeWriteValueSeparator(writer, first);
        MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(writer, indentationLevel + 1);
        WriteValue(writer, value, indentationLevel + 1);
        first = false;
      }

      WriteBracketClose(writer, ListBracketClose, !first, indentationLevel);
    }

    internal void WriteDictionary(TextWriter writer, IDictionary dictionary,
                                  int indentationLevel = 0) {
      WriteBracketOpen(writer, ObjectOpenBracket);

      bool first = true;
      // This will box each pair. Could use IDictionaryEnumerator, but that's ugly in terms of
      // disposal.
      foreach (DictionaryEntry pair in dictionary) {
        string keyText;
        if (pair.Key is string s) {
          keyText = s;
        } else if (pair.Key is bool b) {
          keyText = b ? "true" : "false";
        } else if (pair.Key is int || pair.Key is uint || pair.Key is long || pair.Key is ulong) {
          keyText = ((IFormattable)pair.Key).ToString("d", CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
        } else {
          if (pair.Key == null) {
            throw new ArgumentException("Dictionary has entry with null key");
          }
          throw new ArgumentException("Unhandled dictionary key type: " + pair.Key.GetType());
        }

        MaybeWriteValueSeparator(writer, first);
        MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(writer, indentationLevel + 1);
        WriteString(writer, keyText);
        writer.Write(NameValueSeparator);
        WriteValue(writer, pair.Value, indentationLevel + 1);
        first = false;
      }

      WriteBracketClose(writer, ObjectCloseBracket, !first, indentationLevel);
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Writes a string (including leading and trailing double quotes) to a builder, escaping as
    /// required.
    /// </summary>
    /// <remarks>
    /// Other than surrogate pair handling, this code is mostly taken from
    /// src/google/protobuf/util/internal/json_escaping.cc.
    /// </remarks>
    internal static void WriteString(TextWriter writer, string text) {
      writer.Write('"');
      for (int i = 0; i < text.Length; i++) {
        char c = text[i];
        if (c < 0xa0) {
          writer.Write(CommonRepresentations[c]);
          continue;
        }
        if (char.IsHighSurrogate(c)) {
          // Encountered first part of a surrogate pair.
          // Check that we have the whole pair, and encode both parts as hex.
          i++;
          if (i == text.Length || !char.IsLowSurrogate(text[i])) {
            throw new ArgumentException(
                "String contains low surrogate not followed by high surrogate");
          }
          HexEncodeUtf16CodeUnit(writer, c);
          HexEncodeUtf16CodeUnit(writer, text[i]);
          continue;
        } else if (char.IsLowSurrogate(c)) {
          throw new ArgumentException(
              "String contains high surrogate not preceded by low surrogate");
        }
        switch ((uint)c) {
          // These are not required by json spec
          // but used to prevent security bugs in javascript.
          case 0xfeff:  // Zero width no-break space
          case 0xfff9:  // Interlinear annotation anchor
          case 0xfffa:  // Interlinear annotation separator
          case 0xfffb:  // Interlinear annotation terminator

          case 0x00ad:  // Soft-hyphen
          case 0x06dd:  // Arabic end of ayah
          case 0x070f:  // Syriac abbreviation mark
          case 0x17b4:  // Khmer vowel inherent Aq
          case 0x17b5:  // Khmer vowel inherent Aa
            HexEncodeUtf16CodeUnit(writer, c);
            break;

          default:
            if ((c >= 0x0600 && c <= 0x0603) ||  // Arabic signs
                (c >= 0x200b && c <= 0x200f) ||  // Zero width etc.
                (c >= 0x2028 && c <= 0x202e) ||  // Separators etc.
                (c >= 0x2060 && c <= 0x2064) ||  // Invisible etc.
                (c >= 0x206a && c <= 0x206f)) {
              HexEncodeUtf16CodeUnit(writer, c);
            } else {
              // No handling of surrogates here - that's done earlier
              writer.Write(c);
            }
            break;
        }
      }
      writer.Write('"');
    }

    private const string Hex = "0123456789abcdef";
    private static void HexEncodeUtf16CodeUnit(TextWriter writer, char c) {
      writer.Write("\\u");
      writer.Write(Hex[(c >> 12) & 0xf]);
      writer.Write(Hex[(c >> 8) & 0xf]);
      writer.Write(Hex[(c >> 4) & 0xf]);
      writer.Write(Hex[(c >> 0) & 0xf]);
    }

    private void WriteBracketOpen(TextWriter writer, char openChar) {
      writer.Write(openChar);
      if (settings.Indentation == null) {
        writer.Write(' ');
      }
    }

    private void WriteBracketClose(TextWriter writer, char closeChar, bool hasFields,
                                   int indentationLevel) {
      if (hasFields) {
        if (settings.Indentation != null) {
          writer.WriteLine();
          WriteIndentation(writer, indentationLevel);
        } else {
          writer.Write(" ");
        }
      }

      writer.Write(closeChar);
    }

    private void MaybeWriteValueWhitespace(TextWriter writer, int indentationLevel) {
      if (settings.Indentation != null) {
        writer.WriteLine();
        WriteIndentation(writer, indentationLevel);
      }
    }

    private void WriteIndentation(TextWriter writer, int indentationLevel) {
      for (int i = 0; i < indentationLevel; i++) {
        writer.Write(settings.Indentation);
      }
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Settings controlling JSON formatting.
    /// </summary>
    public sealed class Settings {
      /// <summary>
      /// Default settings, as used by <see cref="JsonFormatter.Default"/>
      /// </summary>
      public static Settings Default { get; }

      // Workaround for the Mono compiler complaining about XML comments not being on
      // valid language elements.
      static Settings() {
        Default = new Settings(false);
      }

      /// <summary>
      /// Whether fields which would otherwise not be included in the formatted data
      /// should be formatted even when the value is not present, or has the default value.
      /// This option only affects fields which don't support "presence" (e.g.
      /// singular non-optional proto3 primitive fields).
      /// </summary>
      public bool FormatDefaultValues { get; }

      /// <summary>
      /// The type registry used to format <see cref="Any"/> messages.
      /// </summary>
      public TypeRegistry TypeRegistry { get; }

      /// <summary>
      /// Whether to format enums as ints. Defaults to false.
      /// </summary>
      public bool FormatEnumsAsIntegers { get; }

      /// <summary>
      /// Whether to use the original proto field names as defined in the .proto file. Defaults to
      /// false.
      /// </summary>
      public bool PreserveProtoFieldNames { get; }

      /// <summary>
      /// Indentation string, used for formatting. Setting null disables indentation.
      /// </summary>
      public string Indentation { get; }

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified formatting of default
      /// values and an empty type registry.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="formatDefaultValues"><c>true</c> if default values (0, empty strings etc)
      /// should be formatted; <c>false</c> otherwise.</param>
      public Settings(bool formatDefaultValues) : this(formatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry.Empty) {}

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified formatting of default
      /// values and type registry.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="formatDefaultValues"><c>true</c> if default values (0, empty strings etc)
      /// should be formatted; <c>false</c> otherwise.</param> <param name="typeRegistry">The <see
      /// cref="TypeRegistry"/> to use when formatting <see cref="Any"/> messages.</param>
      public Settings(bool formatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry typeRegistry)
          : this(formatDefaultValues, typeRegistry, false, false) {}

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified parameters.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="formatDefaultValues"><c>true</c> if default values (0, empty strings etc)
      /// should be formatted; <c>false</c> otherwise.</param> <param name="typeRegistry">The <see
      /// cref="TypeRegistry"/> to use when formatting <see cref="Any"/> messages.
      /// TypeRegistry.Empty will be used if it is null.</param> <param
      /// name="formatEnumsAsIntegers"><c>true</c> to format the enums as integers; <c>false</c> to
      /// format enums as enum names.</param> <param name="preserveProtoFieldNames"><c>true</c> to
      /// preserve proto field names; <c>false</c> to convert them to lowerCamelCase.</param> <param
      /// name="indentation">The indentation string to use for multi-line formatting. <c>null</c> to
      /// disable multi-line format.</param>
      private Settings(bool formatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry typeRegistry,
                       bool formatEnumsAsIntegers, bool preserveProtoFieldNames,
                       string indentation = null) {
        FormatDefaultValues = formatDefaultValues;
        TypeRegistry = typeRegistry ?? TypeRegistry.Empty;
        FormatEnumsAsIntegers = formatEnumsAsIntegers;
        PreserveProtoFieldNames = preserveProtoFieldNames;
        Indentation = indentation;
      }

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified formatting of default
      /// values and the current settings.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="formatDefaultValues"><c>true</c> if default values (0, empty strings etc)
      /// should be formatted; <c>false</c> otherwise.</param>
      public Settings WithFormatDefaultValues(bool formatDefaultValues) =>
          new Settings(formatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry, FormatEnumsAsIntegers,
                       PreserveProtoFieldNames, Indentation);

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified type registry and the
      /// current settings.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="typeRegistry">The <see cref="TypeRegistry"/> to use when formatting <see
      /// cref="Any"/> messages.</param>
      public Settings WithTypeRegistry(TypeRegistry typeRegistry) =>
          new Settings(FormatDefaultValues, typeRegistry, FormatEnumsAsIntegers,
                       PreserveProtoFieldNames, Indentation);

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified enums formatting option and
      /// the current settings.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="formatEnumsAsIntegers"><c>true</c> to format the enums as integers;
      /// <c>false</c> to format enums as enum names.</param>
      public Settings WithFormatEnumsAsIntegers(bool formatEnumsAsIntegers) =>
          new Settings(FormatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry, formatEnumsAsIntegers,
                       PreserveProtoFieldNames, Indentation);

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified field name formatting
      /// option and the current settings.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="preserveProtoFieldNames"><c>true</c> to preserve proto field names;
      /// <c>false</c> to convert them to lowerCamelCase.</param>
      public Settings WithPreserveProtoFieldNames(bool preserveProtoFieldNames) =>
          new Settings(FormatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry, FormatEnumsAsIntegers,
                       preserveProtoFieldNames, Indentation);

      /// <summary>
      /// Creates a new <see cref="Settings"/> object with the specified indentation and the current
      /// settings.
      /// </summary>
      /// <param name="indentation">The string to output for each level of indentation (nesting).
      /// The default is two spaces per level. Use null to disable indentation entirely.</param>
      /// <remarks>A non-null value for <see cref="Indentation"/> will insert additional line-breaks
      /// to the JSON output. Each line will contain either a single value, or braces. The default
      /// line-break is determined by <see cref="Environment.NewLine"/>, which is <c>"\n"</c> on
      /// Unix platforms, and <c>"\r\n"</c> on Windows. If <see cref="JsonFormatter"/> seems to
      /// produce empty lines, you need to pass a <see cref="TextWriter"/> that uses a <c>"\n"</c>
      /// newline. See <see cref="JsonFormatter.Format(Google.Protobuf.IMessage, TextWriter)"/>.
      /// </remarks>
      public Settings WithIndentation(string indentation = "  ") =>
          new Settings(FormatDefaultValues, TypeRegistry, FormatEnumsAsIntegers,
                       PreserveProtoFieldNames, indentation);
    }

    // Effectively a cache of mapping from enum values to the original name as specified in the
    // proto file, fetched by reflection. The need for this is unfortunate, as is its unbounded
    // size, but realistically it shouldn't cause issues.
    private static class OriginalEnumValueHelper {
      private static readonly ConcurrentDictionary<System.Type, Dictionary<object, string>>
          dictionaries = new ConcurrentDictionary<System.Type, Dictionary<object, string>>();

      [UnconditionalSuppressMessage(
          "Trimming", "IL2072",
          Justification =
              "The field for the value must still be present. It will be returned by reflection, will be in this collection, and its name can be resolved.")]
      [UnconditionalSuppressMessage(
          "Trimming", "IL2067",
          Justification =
              "The field for the value must still be present. It will be returned by reflection, will be in this collection, and its name can be resolved.")]
      internal static string GetOriginalName(object value) {
        // Warnings are suppressed on this method. However, this code has been tested in an AOT app
        // and verified that it works. Issue
        // https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/issues/14788 discusses changes to guarantee
        // that enum fields are never trimmed.
        Dictionary<object, string> nameMapping =
            dictionaries.GetOrAdd(value.GetType(), static t => GetNameMapping(t));

        // If this returns false, originalName will be null, which is what we want.
        nameMapping.TryGetValue(value, out string originalName);
        return originalName;
      }

      private static Dictionary<object, string> GetNameMapping([
        DynamicallyAccessedMembers(DynamicallyAccessedMemberTypes.PublicFields |
                                   DynamicallyAccessedMemberTypes.NonPublicFields)
      ] System.Type enumType) {
        return enumType.GetTypeInfo()
            .DeclaredFields.Where(f => f.IsStatic)
            .Where(f => f.GetCustomAttributes<OriginalNameAttribute>()
                            .FirstOrDefault()
                            ?.PreferredAlias ??
                        true)
            .ToDictionary(
                f => f.GetValue(null),
                f =>
                    f.GetCustomAttributes<OriginalNameAttribute>()
                        .FirstOrDefault()
                        // If the attribute hasn't been applied, fall back to the name of the field.
                        ?.Name ??
                    f.Name);
      }
    }
  }
}